What does increased CO2 do to blood?

As levels of CO2 in the blood begin to rise, the body can respond through hyperventilation or hypoventilation, respectively. 

The CO2 that is bound to hemoglobin forms a carbamino compound. In circumstances where the CO2 and H+ concentrations are high, the affinity of hemoglobin for O2 is decreased.

Second, carbon dioxide can bind to plasma proteins or can enter red blood cells and bind to hemoglobin.

This form transports about 10 percent of the carbon dioxide. 

When carbon dioxide binds to hemoglobin, a molecule called carbaminohemoglobin is formed. Binding of carbon dioxide to hemoglobin is reversible.

Hypercapnia occurs when oxygen and CO2 levels become imbalanced in the bloodstream. This imbalance changes the pH balance of your blood, making it too acidic. This condition is called metabolic acidosis. Metabolic acidosis can put excess strain on the kidneys, which can lead to kidney disease or failure. Mar 3, 2023

Carbon dioxide (CO2) has a profound and reversible effect on cerebral blood flow, such that hypercapnia causes marked dilation of cerebral arteries and arterioles and increased blood flow, whereas hypocapnia causes constriction and decreased blood flow [167,168].

The Effects of Second-Hand Tobacco Smoke

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The Effects of Second-Hand Tobacco Smoke

The burning of a tobacco cigarette creates multiple chemical compounds that are released through mainstream smoke, which is inhaled by the smoker, and through sidestream smoke, which is the smoke that is given off by the burning cigarette. Second-hand smoke, which is a combination of sidestream smoke and the mainstream smoke that is exhaled by the smoker, has been demonstrated by numerous scientific studies to cause disease. At least 40 chemicals in sidestream smoke have been identified that negatively impact human health, leading to the development of cancer or other conditions, such as immune system dysfunction, liver toxicity, cardiac arrhythmias, pulmonary edema, and neurological dysfunction. Furthermore, second-hand smoke has been found to harbor at least 250 compounds that are known to be toxic, carcinogenic, or both. Some major classes of carcinogens in second-hand smoke are polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), N-nitrosamines, aromatic amines, formaldehyde, and acetaldehyde.

Tobacco and second-hand smoke are considered to be carcinogenic. Exposure to second-hand smoke can cause lung cancer in individuals who are not tobacco users themselves. It is estimated that the risk of developing lung cancer is increased by up to 30 percent in nonsmokers who live with an individual who smokes in the house, as compared to nonsmokers who are not regularly exposed to second-hand smoke. Children are especially affected by second-hand smoke. Children who live with an individual who smokes inside the home have a larger number of lower respiratory infections, which are associated with hospitalizations, and higher risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Second-hand smoke in the home has also been linked to a greater number of ear infections in children, as well as worsening symptoms of asthma.

Gas exchange in pulmonary

 Once the blood is oxygenated, it drains from the alveoli by way of multiple pulmonary veins, which exit the lungs through the hilum.

alveolar wall consists of three major cell

 The alveolar wall consists of three major cell types: type I alveolar cells, type II alveolar cells, and alveolar macrophages.

the Respiratory System

Lungs  

(radiology of lungs )  

https://www.radiologymasterclass.co.uk/tutorials/chest/chest_home_anatomy/chest_anatomy_page2

(anatomy quiz https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/hilum-of-the-lung

 two major sections: the external nose, and the nasal cavity or internal nose.

Several bones that help form the walls of the nasal cavity have air-containing spaces called the paranasal sinuses, which serve to warm and humidify incoming air.

 Sinuses are lined with a mucosa.

Each paranasal sinus is named for its associated bone: frontal sinus, maxillary sinus, sphenoidal sinus, and ethmoidal sinus.

pharyngeal tonsil, also called an adenoid, is an aggregate of lymphoid reticular tissue similar to a lymph node that lies at the superior portion of the nasopharynx. 

The oropharynx is a passageway for both air and food. 

The oropharynx is bordered superiorly by the nasopharynx and anteriorly by the oral cavity.

 A type II alveolar cell is interspersed among the type I cells and secretes pulmonary surfactant, a substance composed of phospholipids and proteins that reduces the surface tension of the alveoli.

Hydrostatic and osmotic pressure

 Hydrostatic and osmotic  pressure, drive fluid out of and back into your blood vessels. 

These pressures might seem a bit unimportant at first, 

but the help us explain some interesting cases of edema or tissue swelling

Here we have a tissue like muscle or nervous tissue, which is being supplied with blood by this network of capillaries 

capillaries with their Thin wall  pores and gaps are specially designed to allow for the exchange of nutrients, gases waste and fluid between the blood and the tissues. They’re the place in the cardiovascular system where we can get stuff into the blood and get stuff out of the blood. for example, as blood into capillary on the arterioles noticed that some fluid is filtered out of the blood vessel. However we normally don’t want that fluid to stay in the interstitial space as this could lead to fluid collecting in the tissues causing swelling. Many of you have probably experienced this before if you’ve ever stayed standing for too long, you might’ve noticed that your ankles which looked normal before started to swell up or experience was called Adema. This is caused by fluid, staying outside the blood vessel within the interstitial space, causing the tissue to swell to prevent the swelling from happening much of the fluid that was filtered out is normally reabsorbed back into the capillary at the venule Outside the blood vessel within the interstitial space, causing the tissue to swell prevent the swelling much of the fluid that was filtered out, is normally reabsorbed back into the capillary at the venous end, so fluid out fluid out and fluid back in, but why was fluid forced out in the first place and how does it get reabsorbed? Well let’s zoom in first on the fluid being filtered out to see what’s going on the pressure that drives fluid movement out of the blood is called hydrostatic pressure instead of some fancy definition of hydrostatic pressure is I’m just gonna show you what it is using an example that some of you might be able to try out at home. I have a straw like what you might use to drink, but I’m gonna do is put my finger on this end of the straw preventing fluid from leaving. Then I’m gonna fill up the straw with Water if I were to take this straw and poke a hole in it over here what do you think would happen you might’ve guessed it Water is gonna begin to leak out static pressure and generates an outward pressure that will dry fluid out of the straw. You might be thinking I’m all right dude we don’t care about the straw what is with this straw what I just showed you is basically the same thing that happens in your capillary. Your cardiovascular system is basically just a long straw with holes in the capillary and in our capillaries due to the amount of fluid in our cardiovascular system and the hydrostatic pressure in the arterial capillaries fluid is forced out through microscopic, pars and channels in the capillary walls, but if hydrostatic pressure were all we had fluid would collect in the tissues and we Adema or swelling just about all the time OK, so time for second key term osmotic pressure pressure is based on one key fact, bi, osmosis water always flows towards regions in the body. They have a higher osmolarity or a higher concentration of solute particles. For example, we have some water surrounding vessel shown here in yellow. This vessel has some pores or small holes which allows certain particles to cross and prevent others from crossing inside this vessel upper high concentration of some particle shown here in orange notice that this particles concentration is much higher on the inside of the vessel compared to the outside, but if this particle is relatively large, maybe like a protein molecule and cannot leave this vessel through the small pars, that means that the concentration of these large protein molecules is going to remain high inside the vessel and remain low on the outside of the vessel, but since water always flows towards regions with the higher concentration of particles, what do you think Water is gonna do in this case in this case, Water is going to be reabsorbed back into the vessel towards the higher concentration of particles. This situation again is exactly what is happening in your capers in your blood. You’ll find a higher concentration of proteins like the serum protein albumin compared to outside the blood vessels in the interstitial space because of this higher concentration of proteins in your blood fluid tends to be reabsorbed back into the blood driven by osmosis and by osmotic pressure so hydrostatic pressure tends to dry fluid out of your blood osmotic pressure tends to drive it back in quick sidenote. This osmotic pressure caused by large molecules like proteins is called colloid osmotic pressure or oncotic pressure so as I mentioned osmotic pressure in this video I’m really talking specifically about what’s called colloid osmotic pressure. Just FYI. Also we do have other solids in our blood besides proteins like ions like sodium and chloride. however, these do not contribute to the osmotic pressure or the reabsorption of fluid. If you’re curious as to white you can check out the comments below zooming back out let’s put it all together to see how high Rostatic pressure and osmotic pressure, filter and reabsorbed fluid at the cap at the arterial end of the capillary hydrostatic pressure is higher than the osmotic pressure. This causes fluid to be forced out into the interstitial space, but is hydrostatic pressure decreases as we move through the capillary. Osmotic pressure eventually becomes equal to, and even greater than the hydrostatic pressure, causing nearly all of the filtered fluid to be reabsorbed back into the capillary at the Venyl end of the capillary, you might notice that there’s still a small fraction fluid sitting in the tissues, though not all of it is reabsorbed back by osmotic pressure. That’s why our final player comes in the lymphatic system vessels of the lymphatic system will help re absorb the remaining small fraction of filtered fluid that wasn’t reabsorbed by osmotic pressure, helping us to prevent swelling or enema, and they have it in the next review a few cases were fluid. Does Collect with the tissue caused by abnormal changes in hydrostatic pressure or osmotic pressure, for example, ox explain in detail why our ankle swell up when we sit or stand for too long. 

More than the muscles there will dilate is regulated by the autonomic nervous system autonomic nervous system nervous system extends muscle either, or which of these flow options. We are going to see that, so when I talk about that on the way artery. 

That together is why we have a time of resistance and so what's happening.

 This is exploring from the elastic musk to the arterials and we get this velocity. 

Velocity Right huge drop really happens at the arterioles 

arterioles -Slow everything down

Or we reach the capillaries, we need to exchange, nutrients and gases

So again, remembering materials, they were called resistance specials as a result

Arterioles- with the muscular arteries. They also have. 

Lay's new muscle. That's very important so arterials are really critical for regulating blood flow through remembering materials. They were called resistance vessels as a result them to arterials are also going to just like what we saw with the muscular arteries. They also have layer of new muscle. That's very important so arterials are really critical for regulating blood flow through capillaries 

So arteries can help distribute bigger organ level which organs areas of the body will get more or less live. Arterials are really about regulating blood blood flow, so if we zoom in it looks like this all throughout your body blood typically coming through and travel in this direction so if you want You'll see that muscle muscle capillaries can close. This is actually the clothes of these year here here are all closed so what you see is that the blood only flows through that middle, capillary fair and you don't actually see you don't actually see any of the blood flow, the rest of the bed , but those relaxed capillary bed with blood capillary bag in the surface of your skin capillaries is when it's very cold right, so when it's cold out you don't wanna have a bunch of seats to the outside and deck environment so the more blood flow you have to the skin. The more heat is lost that's one of the reasons why it's actually beneficial  That you get all that blood flow even to the skin. If you look at people who just been out on a ride right like their face is very slush this is what's happening so there their condition is the opposite of this. They would actually have lots of bloodflow through Cavalary, but when it's very cold out, we have certain areas of the body bigger areas of the body have less blood to flow, so you're gonna have filters just like a high level of those muscles and that way and less 

Muscles or organs the more that muscle or the more blood from watch right so these pre-capillaries would be opened up if you don't want to use that as much we have the way that we option points to exchange materials every time you see this sort of weird or weird that is actually another button That lots and lots and lots of that all over the place Apple areas are even more even more tiny than ar and not bad red oxygenated blood blue, oxygen blood exchange, Lab covered it but I'm just gonna give these diagrams for you and Election slides so that you have access to them. This is this is the capillary just doing that  Only just to allow like one time to go through so they're very very very small to order. You would actually continuously slightly smaller holes and there is virtually no holes at all my vessels so very very tight very very much here those different tablet types if you want a little bit more  Specifically these this is a nine minute video that's quite nice. Is that there are you remember these sort of discontinuous tab in areas where you want so this word for Mary is actually so same with the God we need to be able to have some weakness to get those  Nutrients easily like this want to be able to be very very late because we are actually trying to get really things. MAR is actually out produced so it's really important that we have a higher amount of like the marrow so that way blood cells are to get out of the marrow and into  so now I am going to ask this video 

And you wanna have a lot of fluid these the blind that processes called filtration fluid which is fluid also has some gases Black vessels vocabulary and interstitial space -e want to leave the 

, we want a lot of fluid to come back into the vein